Introduction
This is the final piece in a three-part series examining the role of supplements in different areas:
- Performance
- Body composition
- General health
In this article, I’ll focus on supplements that support overall health and explore what that really means. The world of health supplements is often crowded with complex detox protocols and obscure herbal remedies that claim to address various ailments. But is it possible that the best solutions are the simple ones?
Let’s get into it.
What are health supplements?
Previously, I’ve discussed supplements that support performance and body composition. For general health, supplements can be valuable additions that can complement your nutrition and exercise behavior you already have in place. These supplements won’t compensate for a diet lacking essential nutrients or a sedentary lifestyle but can be beneficial for bridging minor nutritional gaps. For instance, if you’re struggling to meet your daily protein, healthy fat, or fiber intake, these supplements could provide the support you need.
While I harp on the importance of maintaining a solid nutritional foundation, I acknowledge that society and lifestyle structures can throw curve balls. These supplements can be genuinely beneficial. However, they should complement and support a well-rounded diet. I believe they should be the additions, not the foundations.
General health shouldn’t be confused with healing or medication
One short caveat: this article aims to educate about supplements for general health support and not for healing or medicinal purposes. What does that mean? For instance, if you are experiencing gastrointestinal issues and your doctor recommends taking a fiber supplement like Metamucil to address or manage a medical condition, that is beyond the scope of this discussion. This article focuses on maintaining general health, supporting nutritional guidelines, and potentially aiding in prevention — not treating or managing existing health conditions. For those purposes, consulting your physician is essential.
Top-tier supplements for general health
In the previous articles (here and here), I categorized supplements into tiers to emphasize the strength of their effects or the amount of supporting research within their respective categories. However, I won’t be using that approach for this article. General health supplements involve a wide range of vitamins and minerals, each with their own research and significance. This makes tiering less practical, as there’s plenty to cover without trying to rank their effectiveness or the strength of evidence behind them.
Protein supplements
It’s probably no surprise that protein is also the standout supplement in this category. If there’s one supplement I emphasize most for health when talking with family and friends outside the industry (who aren’t interested in the detailed research discussions), it’s protein.
Adequate protein intake is pretty important for maintaining muscle mass, supporting recovery, and boosting immune function. However, daily protein intake can vary widely depending on factors such as geographic location, income, and dietary habits, ranging from approximately 6.74 to 77.13 grams per day. Now, the lower end of this spectrum is typically found in developing countries with limited access to protein-rich foods. With that said, even in high-income countries, some individuals still do not meet their ideal daily protein intake.
Additionally, there is an argument for consuming more than the current protein recommendations (around 1.2-1.6g/kg, rather than the current recommendation of 0.8g/kg) for optimal health and muscle maintenance. So, for my first argument on the value of protein supplements: they can provide a quick and convenient source of 20g or more of quality protein per scoop. Ideally, whole-food sources should be the primary means of meeting protein needs. However, if it’s the difference between meeting protein intake goals through supplementation or falling short, I advocate for the use of protein supplements or fortified products (e.g., specialized yogurts or milk).
Why is easy protein access and use so important?
For older adults, overall protein requirements tend to be higher. This isn’t just about achieving a certain look — it’s about practical factors like slowing muscle atrophy, preserving strength as you age, and aiding in recovery from injuries. Exercising? You need protein. Fighting off illness? You need protein. Recovering from a tear or injury? Protein.
I do want to point out that heavy protein supplement use could have drawbacks. Quality of product, allergies, and how the proteins interact with your gut microbiome are things to consider, and this also supports keeping protein supplementation limited.
In short, there is no lack of evidence that hitting your daily protein intake is important for optimal health and functionality (here). However, when we consider health, it goes back to overall protein intake versus specific supplements with specific timing and dose.
Fiber
Dietary fiber intake has declined globally, and many fall short of the recommended daily intake. This trend is concerning given fiber’s essential role in gut health and its potential to reduce the risk of chronic diseases. To help bridge this gap, fiber supplements are often recommended for both treatment and preventive purposes, especially for those who struggle to meet their fiber needs through food sources alone.
As with protein, it’s ideal you’d obtain your fiber intake through whole foods. There are vitamins, minerals, and additional health benefits like polyphenols that support a healthy gut microbiome and contribute to overall nutrition. However, being realistic about economic and personal preference challenges, fiber supplements can serve as a practical solution to ensure adequate intake.
For benefits, one of the most well-supported benefits of adequate fiber intake is improved gut motility, aiding in regular bowel movements and stool frequency. Different types of fiber can impact gut motility and digestive comfort in varying ways. For instance, a meta-analysis examining fiber supplementation for constipation found that certain fibers outperformed others, with psyllium showing the most consistent results.
Fiber is also associated with supporting weight management and body composition, which can contribute positively to overall health outcomes. Some of these benefits stem partly from its ability to enhance satiety, making it easier to regulate Calorie intake, and its role in glycemic control. Similar to gut motility, the type of fiber consumed can affect the degree of these benefits, highlighting the importance of choosing the right type for your needs.
Overall, fiber’s wide range of potential positive benefits include improving cardiovascular risk markers, improving blood pressure, and aiding various populations (such as older adults and those with obesity). Although consuming the wrong types of fiber or excessive amounts can lead to gastrointestinal distress for some, fiber supplements are generally affordable and can be a practical option when whole-food sources are insufficient.
Omega-3 fatty acids
These fatty acids originate from microalgae found in both freshwater and marine environments, either floating in the water or on the surface of sediments. Fish consume these algae (or other fish that have consumed it), and accumulate omega-3s in their bodies over time. When you take a fish oil supplement, you’re essentially consuming their stored source of omega-3s derived from algae. Alternatively, you can bypass the fish entirely and take an algae-based omega-3 supplement.
Omega-3s contain amounts of EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) per serving. EPA/DHA are essential fatty acids, meaning the body cannot produce these essential fatty acids, which must be obtained through the diet. These fatty acids are generally only found in these omega-3 marine-based fatty acids. So, this means if you’re not eating fish or the algae the fish eat, you’re not really getting these sources of fatty acids in your diet.
Is that a problem? It can be. Low levels of EPA/DHA are not uncommon, especially for those living in landlocked areas with limited access to fresh marine food. While omega-3s can also be found in fortified foods, chia seeds, and flaxseeds, these sources primarily provide ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). The catch is that while the body can convert ALA into EPA and DHA, this process is inefficient and typically results in only a small supply. Therefore, marine food sources are needed to increase EPA and DHA levels. However, since many people don’t or can’t achieve sufficient intake through diet alone, supplementation becomes an option.
From a practical standpoint, research consistently shows that omega-3 supplementation is effective at raising EPA and DHA levels in the body, but depending on dosage, it can take weeks to months to reach full levels. From a health perspective, I take a pretty conservative view, focusing mainly on the benefits of getting our daily essential fatty acids. Omega-3s, specifically DHA and EPA, have been linked to cognitive benefits like improved memory and learning, with some evidence suggesting they may also help protect against neurodegenerative decline.
Another benefit is inflammation decrease. An umbrella meta-analysis showed that omega-3 supplementation reduced levels associated with inflammation markers (such as CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α). Additionally, omega-3s have been shown to lower the risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS), a cluster of conditions tied to metabolic health risks.
In cardiovascular research, things get more mixed and controversial, particularly when considering the nuances of different types of cardiac events. For example, evidence suggests that omega-3 supplementation may be beneficial in reducing the risk of certain cardiovascular outcomes (such as myocardial infarction). However, the benefits depend on the type of omega-3 used and the specific health conditions of the individual. For example, caution is advised for individuals who have had a myocardial infarction, as omega-3s may elevate stroke risk or atrial fibrillation.
For general risk and safety, it’s best to aim for an intake of about 0.8-1.2g of combined EPA and DHA per day, which seems to deliver benefits but avoids more potentially negative side effects. These negative effects can range from having a bad aftertaste to a higher dose, increasing the ease of bleeding.
With that said, getting your required EPA/DHA covered (but probably leaving it at that) seems to have more positives than negatives.
Creatine
Creatine, typically lauded for its performance-enhancing effects, also offers health benefits beyond performance. Mechanistically, this makes sense, as creatine supports energy pathways and recovery, which could contribute to broader health advantages. For example, improving cellular energy production could support muscle function, cognitive health, and recovery processes, especially in adults or those with certain health conditions.
One of the more notable benefits of creatine is its role in preserving lean body mass. While this effect is most pronounced when combined with resistance training and physical activity, creatine has positively impacted lean body mass retention and growth, particularly in older adults. A meta-analysis from Forbes et al reviewed creatine’s impact and found increases in lean body mass and preservation in aging-related muscle preservation. In a 2024 update, Forbes and Candow expanded on these findings and included a few new studies. Both studies found that creatine helped increase lean body mass when combined with resistance training. The latter study also found there could be a benefit to bone geometry, which is something that may help reduce fracture risk.
Beneficial effects on cognitive function and memory are pretty solid, even in healthy adults. A meta-analysis on memory in healthy adults found that creatine was beneficial to memory performance, and aging adults seem to respond better to supplementation. Another meta-analysis also found positive effects on memory and attention span (though not as impressive results on things like executive function).
There is a hint of creatine’s helpfulness in other areas, from bone health to neurodegeneration, but for now, holding on to lean body mass and helping cognitive function seem to have the strongest supportive evidence.
Multi-vitamin / specific vitamins and minerals
To caveat, the main takeaway for this section is straightforward: the primary benefit of these supplements lies in addressing insufficient intake due to dietary or lifestyle factors. It’s important to avoid excessive or high doses of vitamins and minerals, as too much can be harmful. However, if you’re deficient, it’s generally in your best interest to correct that deficiency and reach adequate levels.
This article from MacroFactor discusses which micronutrients are worth monitoring and gives advice about which vitamins and minerals could have insufficient intake in the general population. However, as the article points out, there is a difference between insufficient and deficient. Large amounts of supplements are not needed to get to a sufficient level of intake. Depending on your dietary situation, it could be taking one specific mineral like magnesium or a daily multivitamin.
Referring to that list, it’s clear that many vitamins and minerals fall into the “insufficient intake is common” category. To keep this concise, I’ll focus on a few examples that illustrate the nuance and are more likely to be needed as supplements, especially because they tend to be effective in supplement form.
Magnesium
Magnesium is vital for over 300 bodily processes, including muscle and nerve function, bone health, and energy production. For instance, one particular role it plays is as a cofactor in Vitamin D metabolism. So if you’re taking Vitamin D without adequate magnesium, it could not be as effective. This one interaction highlights the delicate balance between vitamins and minerals in the body, highlighting why varied whole foods sources are needed for meeting nutrient needs.
With that said, magnesium supplementation could support various health aspects, ranging from bone health and reducing inflammatory markers. While magnesium intake is generally safe, excessive amounts can lead to loose stools and gastrointestinal distress (note: one form of magnesium is commonly used in over-the-counter laxatives). Therefore, it’s wise to moderate your magnesium intake to avoid these side effects.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is particularly interesting because its levels are influenced by diet and sunlight exposure. Limited sunlight can lead to decreased vitamin D levels, an issue more prevalent for people living above latitudes of approximately 35-37 degrees north or south of the equator or for those who spend significant time indoors or have low skin exposure to the sun.
Considering the interaction between magnesium and factors like sun exposure, it’s clear that multiple variables can contribute to insufficient vitamin D levels. While some might hope for supplementation to prevent or address chronic diseases, the evidence doesn’t seem to be overwhelming thus far. The most consistent evidence supports using vitamin D supplements to prevent or correct deficiency or insufficiency, rather than as a treatment for most known chronic diseases.
That’s not to say there aren’t some intriguing possibilities for vitamin D supplementation. For instance, co-supplementing vitamin D may enhance the effects of whey protein in maintaining lean mass in older, potentially frail adults. However, most benefits are seen in areas you’d expect, such as bone health. Overall, while extra vitamin D intake isn’t likely to have miraculous effects, it can play an important role in preventing the consequences of deficiency or insufficiency.
Multivitamins & vitamin/mineral take-home
As seen with the examples of other vitamins and minerals, there are quite a few areas where insufficient intake could occur. Using a quality multivitamin is a straightforward way to address these potential gaps.
Multivitamins can be viewed as a tool to fill potential nutritional gaps when other best efforts are already in place. While they are unlikely to reverse specific health conditions, they could be helpful in reducing the risk of deficiencies that become more common with age. Multivitamins can also be especially useful for individuals with dietary restrictions (such as vegetarians or vegans), serving as a reliable means to cover essential nutrient needs. Essentially, they are more about ensuring baseline sufficiency rather than providing special health benefits.
Lastly, with all vitamins and minerals, it’s important to consider the form. As noted in the magnesium and vitamin D example, there can be a multitude of factors that help with bioavailability. With supplements, there aren’t natural compounds that can work together to increase absorption, so at the very least, make sure you focus on getting the best quality supplements and forms that aid absorption the best.
Examples of higher or lower quality forms for supplements
| Nutrient | Higher-quality form | Lower-quality form | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Calcium | Citrate | Carbonate | While both can be useful, carbonate requires food for better absorption. |
| Iron | Ferrous | Ferric | Ferrous is absorbed more easily. |
| Magnesium | Chelated (e.g., Glycinate or Citrate) | Oxide | Chelated forms are typically easier on the stomach and better absorbed. |
| Vitamin D | D3 | D2 | D3 appears to be more effective |
| Zinc | Chelated (e.g., Citrate, Gluconate) | Oxide, Sulfate | Again, chelated forms are typically better absorbed. |
Recap
The main takeaway from this article is that the focus should be on preventing nutrient insufficiency or deficiency rather than seeking an extraordinary advantage through supplementation. Whole foods remain the gold standard for nutrient intake (an obvious yet important point). However, if dietary choices consistently leave gaps in your nutrient intake, or if you believe a supplement like creatine could enhance your energy, then supplements can be genuinely beneficial. Use them minimally and thoughtfully while continuing to improve and balance your overall diet.
